China's total fertility rate has declined to ultra-low level. Against this backdrop, this study investigates the determinants of subsequent childbearing intentions for a second or third child among Chinese individuals of reproductive age.

The existing literature typically assumes, either explicitly or implicitly, that individuals of reproductive age have a son preference—specifically, a desire to have at least one son—and accordingly treats the number of existing children and whether they have a son or not as separate core explanatory variables in estimating the likelihood of subsequent childbearing. However,currently more than half of the reproductive-age population has shifted their ideal family structure toward having one son and one daughter. To address this gap, this paper contributes to the literature by conceptualizing “fertility intention” as a construct that encompasses both subjective goal orientation and realized outcomes. Specifically, we investigate how fertility support and fertility desire interact to shape subsequent childbearing intentions, and examine which dimension of unfulfilled preference—quantity or sex—exerts a stronger influence on the decision to have another child. Particular attention is paid to complex scenarios in which the quantity preference is satisfied but the sex preference is not, or vice versa.

Drawing on data from the 2021 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) and employing an ordered logit model, this empirical analysis reveals that household annual income exerts an inverted U-shaped effect on higher-order fertility intentions, peaking at approximately RMB 400,000. Both grandparental care and childcare services facilitate subsequent childbearing intentions. Reproductive-age individuals exhibit no significant preference regarding the public or private nature of childcare institutions, yet remain sensitive to the pricing of high-quality services. Under specific economic constraints, individuals are generally unwilling to exceed their intended family size solely to satisfy a sex preference. In contrast, when the actual number of children falls short of the desired level, having “more girls than desired” promotes the intention to have a third child. Conversely, having “more boys than desired” suppresses the intention for a third child, regardless of whether the existing number of children is below, equal to, or above the desired level. Furthermore, among those desiring at least one son and one daughter, the gender of the firstborn does not significantly affect second-child fertility intention.

Based on these findings, the following policy implications are proposed. First, expanding the coverage of childcare subsidies and educational burden-reduction initiatives is necessary to alleviate the economic pressures of childrearing for ordinary families. Second, reforms targeting marriage customs are required to promote a more equitable sharing of marital responsibilities between the families of the bride and groom, thereby alleviating the long-term financial burden on families with sons. Finally, public health and social interventions should aim to cultivate a positive and supportive marriage and childbearing environment, progressively building a favorable landscape where people of childbearing age are willing, confident, and eager to expand their family.

After the official implementation of the policy to gradually raise the statutory retirement age, we utilize data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) and employ the number of children of parents' siblings as an exclusive instrumental variable to empirically test the fertility policy heterogeneous treatment effect of the number of children on parents' expected retirement age based on the generalized Roy model. The findings reveal a delay effect of having multiple children on parents' expected retirement age. As the constraint imposed by the fertility policy on having multiple children increases, the effect becomes more pronounced. Simulation results regarding fertility policy adjustments suggest that, following the Universal Two-Child Policy and Three-Child Fertility Policy, the increase in the number of parents having multiple children further strengthens the delay effect of having multiple children on parents' expected retirement age. In light of this, governments and employers may consider taking into account employees' family situations regarding children, so as to refine the detailed implementation measures for employees' flexible early or delayed retirement. Meanwhile, governments at all levels should accelerate the improvement of the fertility support policy system and incentive mechanisms.

This paper introduces the family life cycle theory to decompose the impact of the destination city's characteristics on the settlement intention of floating population. It is found that housing affordability has the greatest crowding-out effect on the settlement intention of floating people in family formation period; public services have the most significant pulling effect on the settlement intention of floating people in family expansion period; social integration has the largest pulling effect on family shrinkage. In family formation period, the crowding-out effect of housing affordability is greater for the low-educated and low-income floating population; in family expansion period, the pulling effect of public services has indistinguishable impact on the high & low-educated or high & low-income groups; during family shrinkage period, the pulling effect of social integration has a stronger impact on low-educated and low-income floating population. Using family life cycle theory to study the group heterogeneity of the impact of the destination city on the settlement intention of the floating population helps implement the strategic deployment of “people-centered” new urbanization.

Using the data of 2014 baseline survey of the China Longitudinal Ageing Social Survey (CLASS), which provides a sample of Chinese older adults who have grandchild younger than 18 years old, this study examines the associations among grandchild care, social networks, and depressive symptoms among Chinese older adults. The older adults are divided into three groups basing on the frequency of grandchild care provision, including ‘no care’,‘providing care occasionally’ and ‘providing care frequently’ respectively. The mediating and moderating effects of social networks between grandchild care and depressive symptoms are tested. Results show that older adults who provide grandchild care report larger social networks and better mental health than those who dont provide grandchild (reference group). After controlling other variables, the older adults who provide grandchild care occasionally benefit more than those who take care of grandchild frequently. Grandchild care is related to larger social networks, and the association between grandchild care and depressive symptoms is fully mediated by social networks.

Using the data of CLASS 2014, this paper examines the associations between coping styles, social networks and depressive symptoms among rural left-behind older adults. The mediating and moderating effects of coping styles and social networks are tested. The results suggest that the family ties of left-behind elderly are lower than that of the non-left-behind, while the depressive symptoms are higher; positive coping styles decrease the depressive symptoms, while negative coping styles increase the depressive symptoms among rural left-behind older adults; family networks are negatively associated with the depressive symptoms, while the association between friendship networks and depressive symptoms is not significant; the correlation between positive coping styles is totally mediated by family networks; no moderating effects of coping styles or social networks is verified; the mechanism of coping styles, social networks and depressive symptom among left-behind older adults is different from that among the non-left-behind counterparts.